Category: Rainforests

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The particularities of the migratory movement in Venezuela, the Guianas and Suriname

  • Migration in the Colombian Amazon was not a state project but a consequence of the army’s armed conflict with the FARC and the emergence of drug trafficking that grew in its shadow.
  • Although the peace process began in 2017, changes that have occurred since then have given rise to new criminal groups after the guerrillas were eradicated.
  • Although the Guiana Shield has escaped large-scale deforestation, the region is home to tens of thousands of wildcat gold miners exploiting mineral resources in the thinly populated hinterlands of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.

The modern history of internal migration in Colombia began in a manner that was not unlike the processes organized by the governments in Brazil and the other Andean countries in the 1960s and early 1970s. However, that process was derailed first by a civil war and subsequently by the production of illicit drugs, largely because of tactics pursued by the Fuerzas Armada Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC). The conflict effectively suppressed state infrastructure investment while freezing land acquisition by middle-class families and investors. At the same time, however, it fuelled the migration of displaced peasants, who opted to cultivate coca under the protective umbrella of the FARC.

The conflict officially ended in 2017 via the so-called Peace Process, which brought momentous change to the Colombian Amazon. The FARC no longer exists as an organized military entity, but it has been replaced by criminal groups composed of demobilized guerillas and militia members. Unfortunately, the state has not established a meaningful presence in the region and the cessation of hostilities has triggered a land rush supercharged by the drug trade and the cattle industry.

Two young people ride a motorbike on the street that divides Tabatinga in Brazil from Leticia in Colombia. Crime rates have risen sharply in the region. Image by Ivan Brehaut.

Migratory pathways

Before the civil war, the administration of President Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966–1970) created the Instituto Nacional de Colonización (INCOR) in an attempt to respond to the demand for land by the rural poor. The strategy was supported by multiple grants from The World Bank, including The Caquetá Land Colonization Project, which sought to expand, organize and support the spontaneous colonization process of settlers moving from Huila in the previous two decades. Unfortunately, these were not particularly successful, although the government support consolidated the now-predominant cattle production model.

Caquetá was both a source and a sink of refugees in the 1980s, as people moved within the country to escape violence. During the 1990s and 2000s, the department was a net source of migrants, as an estimated 100,000 people were forced to vacate approximately 450,000 hectares (1.11 million acres) of land. Many moved to Bogotá. As of 2020, the department of Caquetá had a population of about 300,000 inhabitants, 99 per cent of whom were descendants of immigrants who had moved to the region in the last fifty years.

A similar history explains the settlement of the Colombian Putumayo, which occurred originally in conjunction with the advent of oil exploration and was fed by the movement of individuals from the adjacent Andean highlands. Although cattle ranching occupies the largest area, deforestation was largely driven by coca cultivation during most of the 1990s and 2000s. As in Caquetá, ranchers consolidated smaller landholdings that were originally created by coca farmers.

A section of cleared forest in the Colombian Andean Amazon, in the department of Putumayo. Image by Natalia Pedraza.

Migration into Meta and Guaviare in the 1990s and 2000s was almost entirely linked to the production of coca leaf and efforts by the FARC and other militias to extend their influence over the landscapes at the edge of the agricultural frontier. Successive waves of peasant settlers have occupied the landscapes surrounding Parque Nacional Natural Sierra de la Macarena, which the FARC has used as a staging area and refuge since the 1960s.

Their operational tactics changed in the 1980s, when they embraced the illicit drug trade as a source of revenue and actively protected peasant farmers growing coca leaf. Roads did not exist in the forest frontier, nor was it advantageous for coca growers to colonize landscapes accessible by vehicular transport. Consequently, the coca growers and the influence of the FARC expanded by using forest trails and river networks.

The peace process has radically changed this dynamic. Land speculators are financing the relocation of small farmers, who are encouraged to ‘move on’ as their original holdings are consolidated into cattle farms that are now accruing value as the region opens to investment. The central government hopes to limit development in the buffer zones around both Macarena and Chiribiquete national parks, and has limited its infrastructure investment to a limited number of major arteries; however, the local officials and land speculators have been building secondary and tertiary roads at an alarming rate.

Chiribiquete supplies 60% of the surface water in the entire Colombian Amazon. Image courtesy of the National Natural Parks System of Colombia.

Venezuela and the Guianas

Successive Venezuelan governments have viewed the natural resources of the Guiana Shield as an economic asset that should be used for national development. This strategy was formulated in the mid-twentieth century and led to the creation of a state-owned enterprise, the Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), to develop mineral and hydrological resources. This decentralized, state-owned conglomerate was established in the 1960s and created a variety of subsidiaries dedicated to the mining and processing of iron ore and steel, bauxite and aluminum, and the development of coal and hydropower energy. The state’s presence was further consolidated in the early 1970s, when President Rafael Caldera (1969–1974, 1994–1999) built a modern highway through the southeastern Gran Sabana region to connect with BR-174, which linked Venezuela with the Brazilian Amazon.

Originally, most of the CVG subsidiaries were efficient producers and competed successfully in international mineral markets; however, their viability as business enterprises declined as their mines aged, industrial assets depreciated and national competitiveness eroded because of mismanagement. The administrations of President Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) and his successor, President Nicolás Maduro (2013–present) bankrupted most of these state-owned business enterprises. Nevertheless, migration into the region has continued because of the allure of the ongoing gold rush, facilitated by the military authorities who now oversee development in the southeastern state of Bolívar.

Guyana and Suriname are coastal countries with historical and cultural ties to the island nations of the Caribbean. Economically they are very dependent on their mineral resources, and they apparently view their Amazonian territories as a natural resource to be exploited when opportunities present. Neither country has designated large areas for protection, and their indigenous territorial systems are relatively small. Most land is held in an unallocated forest reserve. The government of Guyana recently has sought to develop an international transport corridor that would link the emerging agricultural landscapes in Roraima, Brazil, with port facilities in Georgetown. This could change the land-use dynamic along that road as settlers create outposts to provide key services to the transport sector.

The borders among Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana have been managed diplomatically among the colonial powers and the independent states that succeeded them. None of these states seems genuinely interested in colonizing their interior provinces. The border between Venezuela and Guyana is the only remaining contested terrestrial border in the Western Hemisphere. The long-simmering dispute over Guyana’s mineral-rich Essequibo region, which never led to armed conflict, flared up again following the 2015 discovery of an offshore oil deposit potentially worth hundreds of billions of dollars.

The floodplains of the Andean piedmont and certain geologically defined landscapes on the Brazilian and Guiana Shield attract tens of thousands of wildcat miners, who employ placer mining technology that is particularly destructive and extraordinarily toxic. Credit: IBAMA & Vincius Mendonça, CC BY-SA 2.0, Flickr.com Ryan M. Bolton, Shutterstock.

Migratory pathways

The Guiana Shield has escaped the large-scale settlement and deforestation that characterize both Amazonian Brazil and Andean countries. This does not mean, however, that it has not been impacted by migration. The region is home to tens of thousands of wildcat gold miners exploiting mineral resources in the thinly populated hinterlands of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. These miners are a combination of local inhabitants and fortune-seeking immigrants, mainly Brazilian, whose numbers fluctuate in response to changes in the price of gold. The Suriname government estimates the country has about 20,000 small-scale mining operations, each of which probably employs between five and ten individuals. Most mine owners are native-born Maroons who employ thousands of Brazilian garimpeiros.

It is difficult to know precisely what is transpiring in Venezuela because of the chaotic governance that has characterized the country for the last decade. According to 2011 national census, the municipality of Sifontes had a population of 51,000, but recent reports suggest that this number may have surged to more than 400,000 by 2016. The gold mining region is controlled by the military, which operate numerous mines via joint ventures with Venezuelan businesspeople.

Many of these immigrants may not be gold miners, however, but individuals importing scarce goods from Brazil or seeking to emigrate. At the end of 2022, approximately 70,000 Venezuelans were living in Roraima and Amazonas, with some 33,000 in makeshift shelters and camps. Most, if not all, survive by working in the informal economy.

Banner image: A canoe of Indigenous design in Colombia. Image by J.J. Javier via Nia Tero.

“A Perfect Storm in the Amazon” is a book by Timothy Killeen and contains the author’s viewpoints and analysis. The second edition was published by The White Horse in 2021, under the terms of a Creative Commons license (CC BY 4.0).

To read earlier chapters of the book, find Chapter One here, Chapter Two here, Chapter Three here, Chapter Four here and Chapter Five here.

Chapter 6. Culture and demographic defines the present

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Photos: Top new species from 2024

  • Scientists described numerous new species this past year, the world’s smallest otter in India, a fanged hedgehog from Southeast Asia, tree-dwelling frogs in Madagascar, and a new family of African plants.
  • Experts estimate that fewer than 20% of Earth’s species have been documented by Western science, with potentially millions more awaiting discovery.
  • Although species may be new to science, many are already known to local and Indigenous peoples and have traditional names and uses.
  • Upon discovery, many new species are assessed as threatened with extinction, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts.

A giant anaconda, a vampire hedgehog, a dwarf squirrel, and a tiger cat were among the new species named by science in 2024. Found from the depths of the Pacific Ocean to the mountaintops of Southeast Asia, each new species shows us that even our well-known world contains unexplored chambers of life.

This year, in Peru’s Alto Mayo Landscape alone, scientists uncovered 27 new-to-science species, including four new mammals, during a two month expedition. Meanwhile, the Greater Mekong region yielded 234 new species, and scientists from the California Academy of Sciences described 138 new species globally. The ocean depths continued to surprise, with more than 100 potentially new species found on an unexplored underwater mountain off Chile’s coast. Two new mammal species were found in India this year, including the world’s smallest otter.

Scientists estimate only a small fraction of Earth’s species have been documented, perhaps 20% at best. Even among mammals, the best-known group of animals, scientists think we’ve only found 80% of species.  Yet most of the hidden species are likely bats, rodents, shrews, moles and hedgehogs.

Members of Indigenous Awajun communities in Peru’s Alto Mayo assist scientists with their research, such as throwing cast nets to capture fish.  68 fish species were collected, including eight that are new to science. Photo courtesy of Conservation International/ Trond Larsen.

However, while species may be new to Western science, many have been well known to Indigenous peoples and local communities for generations. These communities often maintain sophisticated classification systems and deep ecological knowledge about species’ behaviors, uses and roles in local ecosystems.

“For example, the blob-headed fish, which is so bizarre and unusual, and scientists have never seen anything like it, but it’s very familiar to the Awajún,” Trond Larsen, the leader of the Alto Mayo expedition in Peru from the NGO Conservation International, told Mongabay. “They regularly catch and eat them.” Similarly, the ghost palm, newly named by scientists this year, has been used by Iban communities in Borneo for basketry and food for decades.

Unfortunately, many species may be threatened with extinction before they’re even formally named, victims of human activities like development and climate change. Some of these species could be foods or medicines for humans, but each has a unique role in Earth’s interconnected web of life.

“There is something immensely unethical and troubling about humans driving species extinct without ever even having appreciated their existence and given them consideration,” Walter Jetz, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Yale University, U.S., told Mongabay.

Here’s our look at some of the new-to-science species described in 2024:

Vampire hedgehog and glamorous viper among 243 new species from the Greater Mekong

The Greater Mekong region revealed some of the year’s most distinctive species. Local nature enthusiasts and researchers documented a hedgehog species with fang-like teeth, leading to its name vampire hedgehog (Hylomys macarong).

They also described a pit viper (Trimeresurus ciliaris) whose scales create the appearance of dramatic eyelashes, and a karst dragon lizard (Laodracon carsticola) first noticed by a local tour guide.

These findings illuminate the region’s rich biodiversity and conservation challenges, as many species face immediate threats from development and wildlife trafficking.

New giant anaconda species found on Waorani Indigenous land in Ecuador

Northern green anaconda, a new species found in Ecuador, feeding on a large lizard. Photo by Jesus Rivas.

A significant discovery has been made in the Ecuadorian Amazon, where scientists have identified a new species of giant anaconda in the Bameno region of Baihuaeri Waorani Territory. During their research, the team encountered an impressive female specimen measuring 6.3 meters (20.7 feet) in length from head to tail, though local Indigenous communities report encountering even larger individuals. The species faces multiple threats throughout its range, from deforestation destroying their habitat to direct hunting by humans and environmental degradation from oil spills.

Tree-dwelling frogs found in Madagascar’s pandan trees

One of the newly named frogs, Guibemantis ambakoana. Ambakoana means ‘living within Pandanus’ in Malagasy. Image courtesy of Hugh Gabriel.

In Madagascar’s eastern rainforests, three frog species living in pandan trees received their first scientific descriptions. Known locally as sahona vakoa (pandan frogs), these amphibians complete their entire life cycle within the water-filled spaces between the plants’ spiky leaves. The species, now given the scientific names Guibemantis rianasoa, G. vakoa and G. ambakoana, exemplify how local ecological knowledge often precedes formal scientific documentation by generations.

A new underwater mountain hosts deep-sea wonders off Chile</

A Chaunacops, a genus of bony fish in the sea toad family, seen at a depth of nearly 1,400 m (4,560 ft) on Seamount SF2 inside Nazca-Desventuradas Marine Park. Image courtesy of Schmidt Ocean Institute. CC BY-NC-SA
A rarely seen Bathyphysa conifera, commonly known as flying spaghetti monster was documented on an unnamed and unexplored seamount along the Nazca Ridge off the coast of Chile. Image courtesy of ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

An expedition in the Southeast Pacific discovered more than 100 potentially new-to-science species on a previously unknown underwater mountain, including deep-sea corals (order Scleractinia), glass sponges, sea urchins (class Echinoidea), amphipods (order Amphipoda) and squat lobsters (family Galatheidae).

The expedition also sighted rare creatures like the flying spaghetti monster (Bathyphysa conifera) and Casper octopus (genus Grimpoteuthis).

The seamount, rising about 3 kilometers (nearly 2 miles) from the seafloor, about 1,450 km (900 mi) off Chile’s coast, hosts thriving deep-sea ecosystems with ancient corals and glass sponges. The findings highlight the rich biodiversity of the high seas as the U.N. finalizes treaties to protect international waters.

Toothed toads emerge from mountain forests of Vietnam and China

A new-to-science frog species from Vietnam identified as the Mount Po Ma Lung toothed toad (Oreolalax adelphos). Image courtesy of Zoological Society of London.

Two new species of rare, toothed toads were discovered in Vietnam and China: the Mount Po Ma Lung toothed toad (Oreolalax adelphos) and the Yanyuan toothed toad (Oreolalax yanyuanensis). These amphibians are characterized by an unusual row of tiny teeth on the roof of their mouths. The discovery brings the total known toothed toad species to 21. However, more than half are already considered threatened due to habitat loss and degradation.

Dwarf squirrel and blobfish among 27 new species found in Peru’s Alto Mayo

This ‘blob-headed’ fish (Chaetostoma sp.), is new to science and was a shocking discovery due to its enlarged blob-like head, a feature that the fish scientists have never seen before, even though this species is already familiar to the Indigenous Awajun people who worked with scientists. It is a type of bristlemouth armored catfish. Photo courtesy of Conservation International / Robinson Olivera.
This dwarf squirrel species (Microsciurus sp.) is a very small squirrel that is difficult to spot in the rainforest where it moves quickly and hides among tree branches. After proper taxonomic revision, this species that is new to science will also belong to a new genus. Photo courtesy of Conservation International/Ronald Diaz.
A semi-aquatic (amphibious) mouse (Daptomys sp.) that is new to science from Peru’s Alto Mayo. The species belongs to a group of rodents that is considered among the rarest in the world, and the few species that are known have only been observed a handful of times by scientists, with much still to be learned about their ecology. Photo courtesy of Conservation International/Ronald Diaz.

In Peru’s densely populated Alto Mayo region, home to 280,000 people, scientists working with local communities documented 27 species previously unknown to Western science.

The species included an amphibious mouse (Necromys aquaticus) found in just one patch of swamp forest; a fish with an unexplained blob-like head structure (Trichomycterus sp. nov.); an agile dwarf squirrel (Microsciurus sp. nov.); and a tree-climbing salamander (Bolitoglossa sp. nov.). These findings demonstrate how even human-modified landscapes can harbor biodiversity not yet documented by scientists.

The clouded tiger cat gains species status

Colombia and Costa Rica are key locations for the conservation of Leopardus pardinoides. But preservation of Colombia’s clouded tiger cats faces difficult hurdles, including the urgent need for more research and protection conducted within key areas that lie inside conflict zones, say researchers. Image courtesy of Camilo Botero. Article title - A tiger cat gains new species designation, but conservation challenges remain
Leopardus pardinoides, or the clouded tiger cat, as a new species. This small wildcat is found in the cloud forests of Costa Rica, south to Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. Colombia and Costa Rica are key locations for the conservation. Image courtesy of Camilo Botero.

Scientists formally described a new small wild cat species, the clouded tiger cat (Leopardus pardinoides), found in high-altitude cloud forests from Central to South America. This taxonomic clarification has major conservation implications, as new data indicate all three tiger cat species have experienced dramatic range reductions, with the clouded tiger cat’s habitat particularly threatened by human activities.

A rare ghost palm from Borneo

The ghost palm (Plectocomiopsis hantu) from Borneo was already known to local communities. Benedikt Kuhnhäuser / RBG Kew

 Though long used by local Iban communities in western Borneo for basketry and edible shoots, scientists finally gave a formal name to a distinctive rattan palm after 90 years. Named Plectocomiopsis hantu (“hantu” meaning ghost in Indonesian and Malay), the palm is known for its ghostly appearance, with white undersides to the leaves and gray stems. It’s currently known from only three locations in or near protected rainforest habitats.

A new family of African plants that can’t photosynthesize

Afrothismia species have lost their ability to photosynthesize and rely on fungi for food. Image courtesy of Martin Cheek © RBG Kew

Scientists named an entirely new family of plants, Afrothismiaceae, which have evolved to take all their nutrients from fungal partners rather than through photosynthesis. Found in African forests, these rare plants only appear above ground to fruit and flower. Most species in this family are extremely rare or possibly extinct, with the majority recorded only once in Cameroon.

New orchids from Indonesia

Indonesia is home to exceptional biodiversity including the orchid Dendrobium cokronagoroi (left) and Mediocalcar gemma-corona (right), two of the five new orchids described from Indonesia. Photos courtesy of Jeffrey Champion and Andre Schuiteman RBG Kew.

The orchid family is immense, and new species are found most years. This year, researchers described five new species from islands throughout Indonesia. These are: Coelogyne albomarginata from Sumatra, Coelogyne spinifera from Seram, and Dendrobium cokronagoroi, the Dendrobium wanmae (a critically endangered species) and Mediocalcar gemma-coronae (endangered), all from western New Guinea.

A lonely liana faces extinction from cement production in Vietnam

The habitat of Chlorohiptage vietnamensis is being destroyed for the manufacture of cement. Photo courtesy of Truong VanDo/RBG Kew.

A new genus and species of green-flowered liana, Chlorohiptage vietnamensis, was discovered in Vietnam but is already assessed as critically endangered. Its limestone karst habitat is being cleared for quarries to make cement, threatening the only known population of this unique plant.

Two new mammals from India

Small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus), the world’s tiniest otter species, photographed for the first time in Kaziranga. Photo courtesy of Arun Vignesh.
Binturong (Arctictis binturong), the largest civet species, was also photographed for the first time in Kaziranga. Photo courtesy of Chirantanu Saikia.

Two new mammal species in were described in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve, Northeast India’s biggest national park.  A forest officer documented the presence of the small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus), the world’s tiniest otter species.  The small-clawed otter, protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, joins two other otter species already known to inhabit Kaziranga.

The binturong (Arctictis binturong), an elusive nocturnal tree-dweller also known as the bearcat, was photographed by tour guide Chirantanu Saikia in January 2024. The binturong is found exclusively in Northeast India and requires dense forest canopy for survival. It has become increasingly rare due to deforestation.

While local residents had previously reported sightings of both species, these photographs provide the first concrete evidence of their presence in the park. Conservation officials believe these discoveries suggest the potential presence of other undocumented species within the park, highlighting the importance of continued wildlife surveys and protection efforts in the region.

One of the tiniest frogs ever found in Brazil

Brachycephalus dacnis rests on a fingertip. Photo courtesy of Lucas Machado Botelho.

Scientists in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest described a remarkable new species of frog, Brachycephalus dacnis, measuring just 6.95 millimeters in length – about the size of a pencil eraser. Unlike other similarly tiny frogs that often struggle with balance, this species has maintained its inner ear structure, allowing it to jump gracefully up to 32 times its body length. The discovery in São Paulo state’s remaining Atlantic Forest highlights both the region’s rich biodiversity and the urgent need for conservation, as this critically threatened ecosystem now stands at just 13% of its original extent, potentially harboring many more undiscovered species.

Banner image of Leopardus pardinoides, or the clouded tiger cat, as a new species. This small wildcat is found in the cloud forests of Costa Rica, south to Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. Image courtesy of Johanes Pfleiderer.

Liz Kimbrough is a staff writer for Mongabay and holds a Ph.D. in ecology and evolutionary biology from Tulane University, where she studied the microbiomes of trees. View more of her reporting here.

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